Martial Attitude Training and Participants' Motivation
Satisfaction of psychological needs underpinning motivation at the core of Martial Attitude training program for visual impaired and blind people.
More than 3% of the general UK population are affected by different degrees of visual impairment and their proprioception (that is, the sense of one’s body into space), posture and motor skills are affected as for the lack of important cues to interrelate with the surrounding environment (Pezzullo et al., 2018). Comorbidities behaviors such as sedentary lifestyle, and sub-optimal dieting might lead to obesity, which affects more than 40% of the community since young age (Jones & Bartlett, 2018; Alcaraz-Rodríguez et al., 2021). The lack of exercise among visually impaired and blind people (VI) is also made worse by the barriers encountered in joining inclusive sport activities (Lieberman et al., 2018) and, when considering children, the impossibility for family members to participate represents an extra layer of difficulty to the problematic logistic organization and planning (Columna et al., 2017). Furthermore, participation in sport and exercise is recognized as important for VI to build independence, social interaction (Elsman et al., 2021), confidence and proactivity not to fall into obesity (McMahon et al., 2019) whilst positively influencing their emotional state during their daily life (Roztorhui et al., 2018), hence well-being.
Well-being is, in fact, a complex construct involving one’s perceptions on mental/social aspects as much as on physiological/physical cues all contributing to one’s self-aware optimal functioning and satisfaction in life (Giles et al., 2020). A large consensus in literature links physical exercise (different than physical activity in that it implies a repetitive effort to enhance one’s physical capabilities in a planned, structured way) and well-being through the positive neurological, cognitive and physiological changes that it facilitates (Carek et al., 2011; Mandolesi et al., 2018). Across different cultures and ages, wellbeing has been consistently positively correlated with physical exercise and moderated by the integration of a sense of agency, skill-acquisition and social connection/support. In other words, the satisfaction of these psychological needs works as motivation, both nourishing and driving people into action (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2017c).
Motivation has been studied widely in sports and coaching settings, among many others, from a behaviorism perspective as something derived from, or imposed upon by, environmental and societal values and teachings which, in fact, would control human behavior through reward/punishment systems (Skinner's theory of operant conditioning; Leeder, 2022). However, motivation has been seen as an active and inherent component of human nature as well, and that it keeps on been learnt and integrated within oneself through life, although influenced, but not merely controlled, by the social context. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2011), intrinsic motivation (IM) is, de facto, moderating people’s engagement in new activities and in exploring new behaviors which they might benefit from, driven by curiosity. In other words, a highly satisfying activity is engaged in by people primarily because it resonates with their own sense of self, rather than being commanded by exterior factors or people through coercion or rewards (Cognitive Evaluation Theory; CET, that is the first “mini theory” within SDT; Deci, 1975 in Vansteenkiste et al., 2010). In a kernel, CET posits that IM is enhanced by positive feedback and choice and dwarfed by tangible rewards or competition whilst only social environments promoting autonomy-support will facilitate IM, as opposed to controlling ones (Deci & Ryan, 2011).
Importantly, SDT developed around the identification of three basic psychological needs that all humans must satisfy to thrive, namely: autonomy (the capacity to think, decide freely, fostering ownership of one’s actions/feelings), competence (skills acquisition and mastery), and relatedness (bonding with significant others and with a wider community). If not fulfilled, a lack of autonomy will open to feelings of being pressured against one’s will, a lack of competence could lead to feeling helpless, and a lack of relatedness would lead to a sense of exclusion or social alienation. However, extrinsically motivated activities (e.g., to win a competition or receive praise because of doing something) can be internalized by people, as far as they feel autonomous and satisfied in a sense of competence whilst doing so, assimilating them because they are aligned with their own values (Vansteenkiste et al., 2010, 2020). Hence, not to move the perceived locus of causality from internal to external, an autonomous initiation and regulation of behavior (e.g., undertaking a new activity) will be best facilitated when the psychological need for competence is satisfied within the new task (activity) undertaken and positive feedback is wisely administered throughout. In fact, positive feedback is usually not understood as granted by the simple act of undertaking the task, differently than participating because of an external reward (e.g., money) which, in turn, would negatively affect autonomy and, therefore, would shift the locus of causality externally (Ryan & Deci, 2017a).
An interesting implication of motivation within the CET is also that IM is rooted in the psychological meaning given by the individual to any event, similarly to the tenets of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), an established talk therapy based on the correlation between cognitive/behavioral patterns, which influence each other so that people can change their feelings/emotions by changing behaviors (or their thinking) in response to a certain appraised situation, and vice versa (Turner, 2022; Knapp et al., 2022). Also, relatedness may play an important role in promoting IM, as it is intertwined with motivational climate. In general, people tend to be intrinsically motivated when engaging in solitary activities such as reading or solving sudoku games, without a close direct need to satisfy relatedness to moderate the process. On the other hand, working in teams or classrooms alike creates, de facto, an environment which might be perceived as supportive or not, hence influencing the sense of relatedness of the individual within the group either way. Being in the position of evaluating and being evaluated by others creates the basis for people to “control themselves” from a subjective standpoint to different degrees, depending on how much they focus on the task itself (task orientation; mastery) or on the comparison of their performance in that task in respect of that of others who, also, might be perceived as judgmental of theirs (ego orientation; performance). Accordingly, IM might be decreased in the latter case, following a self-objectification process which determines an environment controlled internally by the individual (Ryan & Deci, 2017b). As an example, this resonates in the importance of a perceived secure, shame-free environment when selecting a gym among obese and disabled people (Richardson et al., 2017; Schvey et al., 2017; Ljudmila Zaletelj, 2019).
Furthermore, it is posited that alignment between personal interests, intrinsic life aspiration and autonomy are strongly correlated with an achievement goal task orientation in people pursuing certain results in learning, whether these might be, for instance, at school, work or in a sport context (Janke & Dickhäuser, 2019). The ego/task orientation framework, concerning one's subjective interpretation of achievement upon mastery or performance success, has been widely accepted as having one’s perceived competence as a key factor to gain motivation, understood as a deliberate effort in time. In other words, the individual orientation might differ and can be, to a certain degree, guided, but it is the consistent acquisition and implementation of a certain skill (i.e., swimming or perfectioning a single stroke, or an element of it) that builds up to a positive motivation in keeping doing it (Elliot & Dweck, 2017).
Consequentially, achievement becomes important for people because of the meaning that they give to it, and it is implemented by the adoption of goals which might differ according to one’s competence in the given task (Roberts, 2012). On the other hand, competence can be high or low, and behavior such as reducing effort, downscaling one’s goals if perceived as too difficult or refraining from activity altogether could be triggered when it is not possible to demonstrate superiority over others or to avoid demonstrating incompetence. Hence, a behavior could be initiated by such a negative or undesired possibility. It has been then theorized that approach-avoidance goals to performance of tasks better capture the essence of motivation and relate as well to how (not only which) competence is valenced, hence encompassing the possibility of not doing worse (in a certain task) than others, than before or “just” incorrectly, as opposed to the dichotomy “to do in an ego/task-oriented fashion” (Lochbaum & Gottardy, 2015). Most importantly, when applied to one’s health or disability, both approach-avoidance motivation still is the moderator between need satisfaction in a particular domain and well-being in that domain (Milyavskaya & Koestner, 2011).
Martial Attitude C.I.C. (MA) has developed through the years a training program bespoke on the physiological and psychological needs of VI based on some elements of KUNG FU Wing Chun which are designed to build sensitivity in the contact with other people when pressure is received through the contact of arms and forearms. Wing Chun is a Chinese martial art rooted in one form (a choreography of movements) delivered in a standing, still position perfect for VI to “find and test their ground” and to acquire important cues about their positioning and posture in space. When trained in pairs, irrespective of the other being fully sighted or not, both people are learning new skills which are transferable to other real-life situations (e.g., dealing with occasional contact with strangers in crowded places).
MA applied to kickstart the project through the National Lottery Community Fund on the 17th of July 2023, and the application was successfully approved on the 16th of October 2023. Following, MA had different calls with the major associations in London providing general/medical/legal advice, logistic support and sport services in the blind community, that is the Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB), Thomas Pocklington Trust (TPT) and Metro Blind Sport (MB), respectively. At the end of November 2023, formal meetings were held with the associations’ Community Connection Coordinator for London and South East England (RNIB), Head of Leisure and Sport Development (TPT), and Sports Development Officer (MB). In the perspective of contacting new associations and of applying for funds with other governing bodies in the future, through all conversations and the follow up email exchanges, it became evident the importance of unpacking the motivational aspects for VI to get started and involved with the proposed training program. Also, the possibility for VI to take part in an activity involving fully sighted people and the transferability of the skills acquired were points found most interesting, across multiple feedback.
In conclusion, previous studies have highlighted the importance of further researching quality of life, physical and psychological wellbeing among VI, deemed to improvement through bespoke applied exercise and sport interventions (similarly to what consolidated in the general population), also because of their sensibly worse participation in such activities (Roztorhui et al., 2018; Elsman et al., 2018; Ilhan et al., 2020; Alcaraz-Rodríguez et al., 2021). Motivation for VI in participating in MA training would be implemented by the alignment between personal interests, intrinsic life aspirations and need of autonomy (strongly correlated with learning achievement in multiple contexts; Janke & Dickhäuser, 2019). Within a safe and supporting exercising environment fostering integration with fully sighted people (who might be family members or close ones), VI will progressively acquire new skills in touching and being touched by others so to develop more confidence and enhance well-being.
REFERENCES
Alcaraz-Rodríguez, V., Medina-Rebollo, D., Muñoz-Llerena, A., & Fernández-Gavira, J. (2021). Influence of physical activity and sport on the inclusion of people with visual impairment: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 443. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010443
Carek, P. J., Laibstain, S. E., & Carek, S. M. (2011). Exercise for the treatment of depression and anxiety. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 41(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.2190/pm.41.1.c
Columna, L., Dillon, S. R., Dolphin, M., Streete, D. A., Hodge, S. R., Myers, B., Norris, M. L., McCabe, L., Barreira, T. V., & Heffernan, K. S. (2017). Physical activity participation among families of children with visual impairments and blindness. Disability and Rehabilitation, 41(3), 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1390698
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2011). Self-Determination theory. In L. P. A. M. Van, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. Sage.
Elliot, A. J., & Dweck, C. S. (2017). Competence as the core of achievement motivation. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of Competence and Motivation: Theory and Application. The Guilford Press.
Elsman, E. B. M., Koel, M., van Nispen, R. M. A., & van Rens, G. H. M. B. (2021). Quality of life and participation of children with visual impairment: Comparison with population reference scores. Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science, 62(7), 14. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.62.7.14
Elsman, E. B. M., van Rens, G. H. M. B., & van Nispen, R. M. A. (2018). Quality of life and participation of young adults with a visual impairment aged 18-25 years: Comparison with population norms. Acta Ophthalmologica, 97(2), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13903
Giles, S., Fletcher, D., Arnold, R., Ashfield, A., & Harrison, J. (2020). Measuring well-being in sport performers: Where are we now and how do we progress? Sports Medicine, 50(7), 1255–1270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01274-z
Ilhan, B., Idil, A., & Ilhan, I. (2020). Sports participation and quality of life in individuals with visual impairment. Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -), 190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-020-02285-5
Janke, S., & Dickhäuser, O. (2019). A neglected tenet of achievement goal theory: Associations between life aspirations and achievement goal orientations. Personality and Individual Differences, 142, 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.01.038
Jones, N., & Bartlett, H. (2018). The impact of visual impairment on nutritional status: A systematic review. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 36(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264619617730860
Knapp, S., Miller, A., Outar, L., & Turner, M. (2022). Psychological well-being and exercise addiction: The treatment effects of an REBT intervention for females. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 64, 102298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102298
Leeder, T. M. (2022). Behaviorism, Skinner, and operant conditioning: Considerations for sport coaching practice. Strategies, 35(3), 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2022.2052776
Lieberman, L. J., Lepore, M., Lepore-Stevens, M., & Ball, L. (2018). Physical education for children with visual impairment or blindness. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 90(1), 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2018.1535340
Ljudmila Zaletelj. (2019). Disability in the gym: Perceptions and understandings about individuals with disabilities [Thesis/Dissertation]. https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0380574
Lochbaum, M., & Gottardy, J. (2015). A meta-analytic review of the approach-avoidance achievement goals and performance relationships in the sport psychology literature. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(2), 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2013.12.004
Mandolesi, L., Polverino, A., Montuori, S., Foti, F., Ferraioli, G., Sorrentino, P., & Sorrentino, G. (2018). Effects of physical exercise on cognitive functioning and wellbeing: Biological and psychological benefits. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(9). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00509
Milyavskaya, M., & Koestner, R. (2011). Psychological needs, motivation, and well-being: A test of self-determination theory across multiple domains. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(3), 387–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.029
McMahon, J., Emerson, R. S. W., Ponchillia, P., & Curtis, A. (2019). Physical performance of participants of sports education camps for children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 113(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482x18818613
Pezzullo, L., Streatfeild, J., Simkiss, P., & Shickle, D. (2018). The economic impact of sight loss and blindness in the UK adult population. BMC Health Services Research, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-018-2836-0
Richardson, E. V., Smith, B., & Papathomas, A. (2017). Collective stories of exercise: Making sense of gym experiences with disabled peers. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 34(3), 276–294. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2016-0126
Roberts, G. C. (2012). Motivation in Sport and Exercise from an Achievement Goal Theory Perspective: After 30 Years, where are We? Advances in Motivation in Sport and Exercise. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781492595182.ch-001
Roztorhui, M., Perederiy, A., Briskin, Y., Tovstonoh, O., Khimenes, K., & Melnyk, V. (2018). Impact of a sports and rehabilitation program on perception of quality of life in people with visual impairments. Physiotherapy Quarterly, 26(4), 17–22. https://doi.org/10.5114/pq.2018.79742
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017a). Cognitive evaluation theory, part I: The effects of rewards, feedback, and other external events on intrinsic motivation. In Self-determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017b). Cognitive evaluation theory, part II: Interpersonal and intrapersonal processes affecting intrinsic motivation. In Self-determination theory: Basic Psychological Needs in motivation, development, and Wellness. Guilford Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017c). Sport, physical activity, and physical education. In Self-determination theory: Basic Psychological Needs in motivation, development, and Wellness. Guilford Press.
Schvey, N. A., Sbrocco, T., Bakalar, J. L., Ress, R., Barmine, M., Gorlick, J., Pine, A., Stephens, M., & Tanofsky-Kraff, M. (2017). The experience of weight stigma among gym members with overweight and obesity. Stigma and Health, 2(4), 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000062
Turner, M. (2022). The rational practitioner. Taylor & Francis.
Vansteenkiste, M., Niemiec, C. P., & Soenens, B. (2010). The development of the five mini-theories of self-determination theory: An historical overview, emerging trends, and future directions. Advances in Motivation and Achievement, 16, 105–165. https://doi.org/10.1108/s0749-7423(2010)000016a007
Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1